The Expansion of DHL in Saudi Arabia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

The Expansion of DHL in Saudi Arabia - Essay Example This helps to secure their place in the international market if the economy in some countries significantly decreases. In addition, the increase in role within individual countries helps to ensure the global awareness of the brand. This report considers the strategy initiated by the DHL Express division of Deutsche Post DHL (henceforth DHL) to increase its investment in the Saudi Arabia network, increasing the access to DHL services for its customers, as well as customer service and delivery fleets. As part of this strategy, DHL planned to invest in the opening of 15 new service points. The Global Economy and International Business DHL is a worldwide logistics company that works with individuals, small businesses and large businesses in order to provide effective logistics solutions for whatever their clients require. The company has a number of different divisions which focus on different sections of their business. These divisions include DHL Express (Deutsche Post DHL, 2011a), which is involved in the worldwide shipping of mail and packages within a limited time frame, DHL Forwarding and Freight, which is involved in the global transportation of merchandise and goods to their destinations, this division focuses on the shipping of large items or large amounts of items, particularly for businesses (Deutsche Post DHL, 2011c). . The other divisions that the company commands are DHL Supply Chain, which provides warehouse storage facilities as well as managed transport and finally DHL Mail, which is responsible for a wide range of services including global mail, the retail outlets for the company, press services a nd marketing . Multinational organisations are confronted with the decision to either focus on regional or on global expansion. Generally speaking, if a company expands at a regional level it loses some of its ground at the global level, and vice versa. Globalization has been shown to be a strong strategy for companies, allowing them to increase their competitiveness . DHL has players in both fields, with a strong international presence as well as strong roles in a number of different regions. The expansion within Saudi Arabia is being developed as part of a wider strategy for expansion into the Middle East, with the idea that Saudi Arabia could serve as a foothold and a strategic location. Data Country Trends DHL has operated within Saudi Arabia since 1976. In 2008, DHL Express initiated a strategy to significantly increase their network within the Saudi Arabian region. In order to do this a total of $26.6 million USD was invested into the network. This strategy served two purposes ; the first was for the expansion within Saudi Arabia, to provide better service and products. The second purpose was to take advantage of the influential role that Saudi Arabia has on the economic development in the Middle East and create strong customer relations and brand recognition for future development . Population Trends Stakeholders in International Business Stakeholders in DHL include customers, employees, investors as well as a number of partner organizations. Other stakeholders include those who are involved in making policy, various environmental and social groups, as well as the general public. In the expansion into Saudi Arabia, the company must balance the needs of the different stakeholders. In order to do this, DHL works actively with different stakeholder groups to ensure that there are no problems. For example, they engage environmental groups to discuss the impact in which the company will have in their expansion and the way in which environmental impact can be reduced .

John Updike`s A&P Essay Example for Free

John Updike`s AP Essay â€Å"A P† is first-person narrative revealing the delusively ordinary story related by the checkout boy in the grocery store named in the title. In â€Å"A P† the first-person narrator is defined largely by his tone and vocabulary. Updike molds his protagonist through the use of specific writing style, thus Sammy is casual and colloquial. The customers in his grocery are referred to as â€Å"the sheep† the commonness of which has been one day disturbed by the appearance of a sexually uninhibited, young ladies in bathing suits. Surveying the three girls as they wander the aisles, Sammy describes the girls, and here Updike’s style is prolifically intoxicated with the description of the girls with the flights of slang language, trying to show why these teenagers deserve the sacrifice: chunky with â€Å"a sweet broad soft-looking can†, breasts, on the other hand, become â€Å"two smooth scoops of vanilla†, the shoulder bones become â€Å"dented sheet of metal tilted in the light†. Besides, Sammy’s narration is lard with the discourse markers that make his flow of narration softer and folksy: â€Å"kind of jerk†; â€Å"she kind of led them†; â€Å"she had sort of oaky hair† The colloquial style is expressed not only in the vocabulary of the protagonist but in the violated sentence structures. Updikes uniqueness lies in his process of detachment. Coming in adjective or adverb modifiers rather than main sentence elements, the ironic posture emerges without affecting plot: â€Å"and a tall one, with black hair that hadnt quite frizzed right, and one of these sunburns right across under the eyes, and a chin that was too longyou know, the kind of girl other girls think is very â€Å"striking† and â€Å"attractive† but never quite makes it, as they very well know, which is why they like her so much† Not rare are also broken structures like: â€Å"She had on a kind of dirty-pinkbeige maybe, I dont knowbathing suit†, or â€Å"The sheep pushing their carts down the aislethe girls were walking against the usual traffic (not that we have one-way signs or anything)were pretty hilarious. † The story is presented through the present-tense narration. Such choice of grammar technique imparts narration the sense of immediacy, makes it a chronicle of one event, so that reader feels as if he himself is a witness of that event. â€Å"IN WALKS these three girls in nothing but bathing suits†, â€Å"The girls, and whod blame them, are in a hurry to get out, †, â€Å"Lengel sighs and begins to look very patient and old and gray. † Updikes striking adjectives appear often: â€Å"kind of dirty-pinkbeige maybe†, â€Å"chubby berry-face†, â€Å"long white prima-donna legs†, â€Å"the cat-and-dog-food-breakfastcereal-macaroni-rice-raisins-seasonings-spreadsspaghetti-soft-drinks-crackers-and-cookies aisle†; Their intrusiveness increases and besides literary irony, they produce an ambiguity of intent or author’s attitude (hence diction) in his story, which is matched somewhat by unexpected metaphors or visual comparisons, like â€Å"two smoothest scoops of vanilla†, â€Å"outside the sunshine is skating around on the asphalt outside the sunshine is skating around on the asphalt†, â€Å"his back [was] stiff, as if hed just had an injection of iron†. All of these figures, although appropriate functionally to the text, often call attention to themselves and piece out Updike’s style. Updike, John (1962) Pigeon Feathers, and Other Stories. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Juvenile Delinquency: Psychological Concepts

Juvenile Delinquency: Psychological Concepts Abstract   The following essay will be used to depict the psychology of a juvenile delinquent in comparison to that of an individual that is considered to be normal. Various perspectives will be taken as well. For example, there will be a direct comparison between the male and female population of certain age groups in regards to delinquency. Aside from gender, which will be the initial comparison, other factors such as race and location of upbringing will be evaluated. Ideally, the essay will prove that delinquency is directly correlated to surroundings and upbringing. This will focus particularly on the age group of 12-17. There will be many different sources of statistics. Some will show that many delinquents have endured traumatic, life-changing events that contribute to these irrational and usually dangerous behaviors. Possible motives will also be questioned (for example: revenge, adrenalin rush, gang affiliation, etc.). There will be a portion dedicated to evaluating the brain itself and which parts are affected during the course of certain activities. There are some theories that state delinquency is based upon genetics and acquired at birth, as opposed to a learned behavior. This will be addressed and, ideally, disproved. And finally, the psychology of different types of crimes will be taken into account. For example, one that has partaken in gun violence most likely has a different psychological mindset than a teen that stole from a store. Ultimately, the paper will conclude reminding the reader of the most valuable statistics to suggest that there are many contributions to juvenile delinquency, and that these must be taken into account, should a young person make a mistake in his or her life. Introduction Throughout history people have tried to explain why a person would commit crimes. Some consider a life of crime better than a regular job- at least until they are caught (Bettmann/Corbis). Is It true to say that more often than not, such behavior as an adult began when one was merely a teenager or even younger? Certainly. In what is noted to be the cycle of violence, the causes of delinquency are adopted and continued throughout generations of a family. In this cycle of violence, neglected and abused children show signs of delinquency and later become criminals as adults. Because of this, these acts of violence must serve as an outcry to s psychological disorder (as opposed to a personal decision). Scientifically speaking, researchers have discovered a correlation between neurochemicals of the brain and criminal behavior. Those who commit crimes have lower levels of serotonin- which tends to calm a person- and higher levels of dopamine (which expresses aggression). Therefore it is inaccurate to claim that juvenile delinquency (or all crime, for that matter) is nothing more than someones irresponsible decision based upon factors such as money and gang affiliation. When a child grows up in a poor family environment, he or she will often turn to a gang instead. Receiving nothing at home, the young individual seeks a gang, where he or she may acquire different level of respect from the other members. Gangs, which in actuality are only based upon a desire for materialism (drugs, alcohol, money, etc), always require crime to be committed. Because a young individual finally feels a degree of acceptance, he or she will not turn down a request to commit a crime and risk losing position in the gang. These behaviors and gang involvement follow one throughout their lifetime, once more continuing the cycle of violence. These teens are unknowingly making criminals of the future generations of their families by being in gangs themselves. Statistical Overview Despite the fact that juvenile delinquency is still problematic in the United States, there have been statistical declines since the 1990s (particularly in instances of violent crimes). Between 1994 and 1999, there was a thirty-one percent decline in rape, a fifty-three percent decline in robbery, and a thirty-nine percent decline in correlation to arrests for weapon violations (Archer, 240). These numbers decrease into the early twenty-first century, as well. Between 1992 and 2001, there was a sixty-two percent decrease in the rates of manslaughter among adolescents, a forty percent decrease in burglary, and a fifty-one percent decrease in auto theft (Archer, 240). However, despite the fact that overall crime was decreasing, the rate of crime among the female population has skyrocketed. Since the early 1990s, the rates of female court cases have increased approximately eighty-three percent. Majority of these offenses are not related to violence, though. On the contrary, most adolescent females are arrested for either running away from home or for prostitution. Behavior in Regards to Delinquency The hereditary and environmental factors play a considerable role in the development of delinquent and criminal behavior. As the individual grows older alongside the influences of his or her norm, negative behaviors may develop as well. Those that tend to commit crimes tend to show signs of traits such as aggressiveness or constantly acting impulsive. Such traits demonstrate the desire to defy authority, which is obviously evident in every criminal. Aside from those characteristics, one who becomes a delinquent is typically more socially withdrawn and reserved. More often than not, these are caused by a traumatic event or series of events in the delinquents childhood. As he or she grows up, he will be characterized by a sense of defiance and with skewed vision of the social norm. Because the delinquent is not, socially speaking, similar to others, becoming social or talking to others is greatly difficult. However, this is irrelevant, for many delinquents avoid unnecessary social contact altogether. Many criminals are centrally based and disregard the well-being of others (tied tightly into the idea of solitude), Aside from this, he or she will be very self-centered and focusing on ones own well-being. Despite behavioral patterns that may be going on for generations, there is a way to alter these mental standings in certain people in order to help them stray away from the negativities of a life of crime. One of the most significant therapeutic methods is to find a way to help the delinquent comprehend and relate to the idea of nurturing, beneficial social connections with other people. This is the final result of a potentially long process of assisting a delinquent to help with his or her mental state of being. Other Factors Regarding Delinquency A study done within the Psychology department of the University of South Carolina at Charlotte shows that cases of insomnia result in a deterioration of inhibitions and an increase of reckless behavior. However, aside from this, one of the most significant contributions would be the social relations of ones life. According to the social learning theory, processes occurring in daily social interaction provide the proximal nexus at which these casual factors converge to exert their influence (Lahey, 27). Rationality for the Juvenile Legal System It is greatly debated whether children and teenagers caught committing crimes should endure the same extents of punishment that an adult committing the same crime would receive. Some rationalize that the brain of adolescents are not fully developed, and therefore not completely responsible for juvenile delinquency. It is possible that there is a scientific, chemical relation to an adolescents inhibitions (Corriero, 48). There are many areas, however, that disagree. In many states, a young child may go on trial at the age of 13 and may be tried for murder as young as the age of 14 (Corriero, 35). In Oklahoma, for example, a child as young as the age of seven may be held accountable for crimes, no matter what the degree of severity. This is highly arguable and debated in many states. On one hand, the child is personally responsible for the crime. As a result, he or she should be punished just like anyone else would (if for nothing else, then for the sake of learning). On the other hand, the child should not be held accountable for wrongdoing, for he or she does not have a brain that is fully developed. Putting a youngster in jail or forcing them to deal with the law at such a young age may prove to me highly unbeneficial. He or she does not have a fully developed mind and may therefore be manipulated by dark experiences, thus increasing ones chance of repeated delinquency at a later date. All states hold trials against the young quite harshly in all states. In the United States, there are 200,000 youth younger than the age of eighteen that are tried as adults. Of this statistic, approximately twelve percent of the delinquents are under the age of sixteen (Corriero, 35). In older times, children were punished as brutally as adults. However, as time progressed and psychological studies deepened, it showed that much of the traditional actions were ineffective. In its place, a greater concern was being directed towards delinquents. As opposed to punishment in itself, those imprisoning or looking after delinquents must make sure that the child see the error of his ways and acquire a substantial knowledge of the differences between right and wrong. The offended was not meant to only be imprisoned and isolated, but reformed. This significant change within the American courts ended up changing the psychological studies of delinquents for the remainder of time. Delinquents are often given probation as opposed to jail time, for many within the court system felt they must endure the real world to better learn to establish themselves.

Broad-Based Oppositions in Hungary and Yugoslavia :: Communism Governmental Political Essays

Broad-based Oppositions in Hungary and Yugoslavia No two countries in East Central Europe share the same experience of Communism. Parallels can be drawn between countries, groupings can be made and put into tiers, and data can be compared. But each country has a unique past which continues to make itself felt in the present day, despite the common direction the countries are taking towards a free market economy and multi-party democracy. Hungary, for example, has a more westward-leaning tradition than Yugoslavia does. Though their alliance with the Hapsburg Monarchy may have hindered the development of institutions of self-governance and a modern economy, that same tradition with Austria probably also helped it usher in the changes of 1989 more swiftly than many of its neighbors. The debate is still going on as to whether the Austrians did more harm than good for the country, but one thing is clear: Hungary has enjoyed a far less painful transition than many of its neighbors, including Yugoslavia. A comparison of the overall transit ion since 1989 in the two countries lies well beyond the scope of this paper; I intend, however, to look at the election systems, the most recent election outcomes and the major political powers in place in Hungary and Yugoslavia and draw some similarities between the opposition coalitions were formed. In Hungary, all citizens above the age of 18 are eligible to vote. Though there are no controversial language requirements, voters must be in the country on the day of the election in order to participate. Hungarians traveling abroad for business or on vacation are excluded, as are those temporarily living in another country; there is no system in place similar to the American absentee ballot system that allows them to cast their vote if they find themselves beyond Hungary's borders on election day. Prisoners and those permanently residing in medical institutions are also excluded. Only those citizens making a positive and active contribution to society, then, have the privilege of casting a vote. The implication inherent in this law that Hungarians living or working overseas at the time of the election are not making any such contribution. The outcome of national elections for Hungary's legislature is determined by a complex combination of simple majority and proportional representation systems. Of the 386 seats in the unicameral legislature, 176 are chosen from single-member constituencies and 152 are chosen from 20 distinct territorial multi-member constituencies, which follow the administrative county lines (in Hungarian megye, county).

The Municipal Solid Waste Environmental Sciences Essay

1.0 IntroductionChapter one provides an overview of the whole survey. It begins with the background to the survey. It besides inside informations the intent of the survey, the job statement, the research inquiries and the aims. The research hypothesis, the significance of the survey and the restrictions to the survey are besides included in this chapter.1.1 Background to the StudyMore than half of the universe ‘s population live in countries that are classified as urban ( Brook and Davila, 2001 ) . Taking Africa as an illustration, its population will about treble by 2050 and this will be chiefly in the urban and peri-urban countries ( UN-Habitat 2001 ) . Rapid urbanization, which is chiefly driven by the inflow of migrators from rural countries in hunt of better supports, has its attendant effects. Increasing waste coevals rates due population growing, altering life styles of people, development and ingestion of merchandises with stuffs that are less biodegradable have led to the diverse challenges for Municipal Solid Waste Management ( MSWM ) in assorted metropoliss of the universe ( Asase et al 2009 ) Nemerow et Al ( 2009 ) define solid waste as any assortment of solid stuffs every bit good as some liquids in containers, which are discarded or rejected as being spent, useless, worthless or in extra. It must be noted that although waste might non hold any user value to the proprietor it still holds some value, peculiarly plastic and metallic waste still keep some value when discarded. This is apparent in the recycling of fictile waste and the aggregation of metallic waste by scavengers for recycling. Harmonizing to UNEP ( 2005 ) , waste coevals rates of a state normally goes up straight relative to technological promotion in development, and the inability to set in topographic point a waste direction system. Consequently, there could be enhanced urban population hazard, as a consequence of pronounced environmental crud. A important proportion of urban waste in Ghana is deposited either on the roads, waysides, unapproved shit sites, in waterways, drainage system, or in unfastened topographic points. In fact, solid waste poses assorted menaces to public wellness, and adversely affects vegetations and zoologies every bit good as the environment ; particularly when it is non suitably collected and disposed ( Geraldu, 1995 ) . Sanitation and good hygiene are cardinal to wellness, endurance, growing and development. The Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs ) have set us on a common class to force back poorness, inequality, hungriness and unwellness. Having a healthy urban environment sets a metropolis on path for development. The effects of solid waste direction is a large cost to the state in footings of wellness because when refuse ends up in the incorrect topographic point, it pollutes H2O, air and the dirt, making negative wellness impacts, and offers bacteriums and pests a friendly environment in which to multiply. Ghana, with a population of 23 million generates about 4.5 million metric dozenss of solid waste a twelvemonth ( Agyepong, 2011 ) . With an estimated population of about 2 million people, the Kumasi Metropolis generates an norm of 1,500 metric tons of solid waste daily. Out of this sum the KMA is merely able to roll up about 1,300 metric tons go forthing the staying 200 metric tons uncollected due to inadequate waste aggregation logistics ( KMA, 2010 ) . No purpose about effectivity in disposal and recycling or reuse. In recent times, a popular waste direction option that has caught the attending of the Metropolitan Authorities in the urban Centres is the use of private waste direction companies. Though the usage of private waste direction companies in covering with the challenge of effectual direction of urban waste is yet gaining popularity among developing states in sub-Saharan Africa, it provides a formidable agencies of procuring a feasible waste direction option for urban governments and carry throughing the dreams of accomplishing environmentally clean vicinities for urban inhabitants. Prominent among the private waste direction companies contracted by the Waste Management Department of the KMA to assist carry through its authorization of turn toing solid waste direction issues in the city is the Zoomlion Ghana Limited, which seems to be executing its undertaking creditably in the face of dashing challenges associated with urban solid waste direction in Ghana. From literature and experts in the field of waste direction field, a set of public presentation indexs like the waste direction activities they render ( ie street sweeping, drain cleansing, waste aggregation and disposal ) , operational capacity in footings of staffing, machinery and equipments, the fiscal viability of their activities etc. are needed to measure operations of waste direction in the Metropolis efficaciously.1.2 Problem StatementKumasi is referred to as Garden City of West Africa. The latter is an award earned from Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II on a Royal visit to Ghana in 1957, chiefly due to its vegetations and beauty. Kumasi is fast losing its glorification chiefly due to rapid urbanisation and its attender job of comparatively immense waste coevals and hapless direction of the waste. It is now rather common to see tonss of waste dotted all over the cities, Normally the ground given by the general populace for these ugly sights is that metropolis governments fail to either provide or oversee t he proviso of waste containers at vantage points. The City Authorities are further accused of neglecting to guarantee that regular and/or frequent voidance of the waste containers are done, even where these are provided. Individual end-users of the services of private waste direction companies frequently complain about undependable service bringing by these waste direction houses. On the other manus, these private waste direction houses argue that metropolis governments hamper their pursuit for quality service bringing through bureaucratism, with respects to honoring contractual understandings with the City Authorities. All this leads to ineffective waste direction. It is by and large believed that uneffective waste direction can do taint of surface H2O, groundwater, dirt, and air, which bring more jobs to worlds, other species, and ecosystems. Additionally, there is attractive force of insects and gnawers, which provides a oasis for xanthous febrility, the pestilence, GI parasites, worms, and assorted inauspicious human conditions. Several diseases, every bit good as malignant neoplastic diseases are caused by exposing worlds to wastes ensuing from the burnt gnawers and insects. Waste intervention and disposal produce important nursery gas ( GHG ) emanations, notably methane, and contributes significantly to planetary clime alteration ( International Waste Activities, 2003 ) . Besides, the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly ( KMA ) incurs a monthly outgo of GHA?585,000.00 on the direction of solid waste in the Metropolis ( KMA, 2011 ) . Intelligibly, the significant cost involved in solid waste direction within the Metropolis arouses stakeholder involvement in cognizing the quality of service being rendered by contracted waste direction houses. This survey seeks to look into the public presentation of urban solid waste direction in the Kumasi Metropolis, find how effectively Zoomlion, a contracted private waste direction company performs its operations1.3 Aims of the StudyTo measure the public presentation of private sector engagement via Zoomlion a privately-owned waste direction company, with respect to urban solid waste direction in the Kumasi Metropolis. Specific Aims of the survey are: To measure the operational capacity of Zoomlion in footings of staffing and equipment for effectual operations. To gauge the measure of waste handled per period and its associated cost. To gauge the gross generated and the fiscal viability of Municipal solid waste direction operations of Zoomlion. To measure solid waste recycling activity in Kumasi Metropolis. To find the challenges of waste direction and perceptual experience of end-users on quality of waste direction in Kumasi.1.4 Research QuestionsThe inquiries this survey seeks to turn to are: What is the operational capacity of Zoomlion in footings of staffing and equipment for effectual operation? What are the measure of waste handled per period and its associated cost? What are the gross generated and the fiscal viability of the municipal solid direction operations of Zoomlion? What solid waste recycling activities are in the Metropolis? What are the challenges of waste direction and perceptual experience of end-users on quality of waste direction in Kumasi?1.5 Justification of the surveyEfficient urban waste direction is important in the attainment and nutriment of the position of millenary metropolis by Kumasi. Indeed, sanitation signifiers one of the major focal points of the Millennium Cities Initiatives ‘ societal sector and investment-related research in Kumasi. Knowledge of the grade of efficiency of waste direction by the Zoom king of beasts in the Kumasi Metropolis and the challenges faced in the bringing of this service would guarantee better grasp of the kineticss of urban waste direction by all stakeholders including policy shapers. It would besides supply critical information to prospective investors in the urban waste direction venture. Assorted surveies have been conducted sing urban waste direction in the Kumasi Metropolis but small or nil seems to hold been done in the country of measuring the public presentation of private urban waste direction houses, and consequences from this survey will make full the cognition spread.1.6 Scope of the StudyThe survey would be carried out within the Kumasi Metropolis in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The survey seeks to reexamine the waste direction policy of KMA waste section and the operations of its associated contracted private waste companies in the Kumasi Metropolis. Zoomlion Ghana Limited would be used as a instance survey for the whole undertaking. The mark for the survey includes staff members of the KMA waste section, Zoomlion Ghana Limited every bit good as that of little recycling concern ( scavengers ) . The participants for the survey would be selected utilizing simple random trying whereby each participant would hold an equal opportunity of being involved in the survey. The usage of simple random sampling is to enable the research worker avoid any signifier of biaseness in the choice procedure. Interviews, questionnaires a nd observation would be used to arouse the needed information from the mark group. Performance Indexs are: frequent dislocation of vehicles and equipments, payment of service fees, logistical restraints, monitoring/ supervising by KMA, abregation/revision of contractual understanding, and consciousness of sanitation pass Torahs.1.7 Restriction of the StudyAcquisition of information on cost of operations and gross generated by Zoomlion Gh Ltd is anticipated to be hard because of the high confidentiality that persons and concerns attach to such information. Most functionaries will non voluntarily grant interviews until they have sought permission from higher authorization.1.8 Structure of the StudyThe survey is structured into five chapters. Chapter one will present the survey including the background, the job statement, aims and the undertaking range. Chapter two will supply information refering to reexamine of literature relevant to the survey subject. In this chapter, the bing orga nic structure of cognition would be reviewed to decently set up the theoretical foundation for the thesis. Chapter three will capture the research methodological analysis, detailing the research instruments and techniques that would be employed by the research worker in roll uping informations, analyzing the information and construing the consequences. Chapter four will give an overview of the consequences of informations collected in chapter three, together with analysis and treatment with regard to findings of other similar surveies. Chapter five will wrap up the whole survey by supplying information refering to the sum-up, the decision and recommendation of the survey.Chapter TWOLITERATURE REVIEW2.1 Definition of WasteMaterials that are non needfully classified as premier merchandises are regarded as waste. By and large, these stuffs are those that the generator intends to dispose of. Further, these stuffs do non happen extra use with regard to alter, ingestion, or production by the generator of the waste. The coevals of wastes may ensue from natural stuffs extraction, natural stuffs treating into in-process and concluding merchandises, the use of finished merchandises and diverse human actions. The recycling of remainders or unmoved reuse are non included ( GST, 2002 ) . The returning of substances to the environment is a end point of the happening of a natural portion of the recycle. The wastes recycled by populating beings are excreted by in-take of natural stuffs by populating beings. However, a farther flow of the residue of stuffs that would make an overload of the capacity of procedure involved in natural recycling is produced by people. Therefore, to cut down their impact on the wellness, aesthetics and the environment, there should be proper direction of the wastes ( Environmental Literacy Council, 2002 ) . Man-made systems which emphasize the economic value of stuffs and energy, and where production and ingestion are the dominant economic activities. Such systems tend to be extremely destructive of the environment as they require monolithic ingestion of natural capital and energy, return the terminal merchandise ( waste ) to the environment in a signifier that amendss the environment and necessitate more natural capital be consumed in order to feed the system. Where resources and infinite are finite ( the Earth is non acquiring any bigger ) this is finally non sustainable. The presence of waste is an indicant of overconsumption and that stuffs are non being used expeditiously ( Fullcycle, 2009 ) .2.2 Types of Waste2.2.1 Municipal Solid Waste ( MSW )The nomenclature – municipal solid waste ( MSW ) – is used for the wastes that are collected from commercial edifices, families, light industrial procedures and establishments like schools and infirmaries. The chief constituent s of MSW are yard fixingss, containers and packing stuffs, wastes from nutrients, paper and containers. In add-on, the followers may besides be contained in MSW ; industrial sludge, which may be either non-hazardous or risky from n, building, excavation, and processes involved in fabrication. There is no immediate menace to the wellness of homo or the natural environment, if MSW is managed decently. In Ghana solid waste refers chiefly to: Domestic waste ( waste from nutrient readying, brushing, discarded family points ) , Municipal waste ( waste generated in commercial Centres ) , Industrial waste ( e.g. wood waste, waste from butcheries and nutrient processing industries, metal garbages from garages ) ( Poku, 2009 ) .2.2.2 WasteExisting in a solid, liquid or gaseous signifier, a waste stuff may be flammable, reactive, caustic or toxic. Despite the fact that the term â€Å" waste † is associated with risky stuffs, the former includes merchandises used on a day-to-day footing. Waste stuffs include shoe Polish, detergents, batteries, used oil from motorised conveyance, and pigment. Additionally, the production processes of several times that we use day-to-day generate risky wastes. Legislations have been put in topographic point to enjoin commercial and industrial concerns to pull off their wastes from the point of coevals till the clip of disposal. In order to understate the risky nature of wastes, the latter is frequently made to undergo intervention with a position to modifying their biological, chemical and physical features. In modern-day times, many industrial concerns change their production processes or replace harmful stuffs with less insecure 1s in the value concatenation, so as to understate the coevals of risky wastes.2.2.3 E-WasteIn modern times, there is a new waste watercourse, which is competently termed ‘e-waste ‘ . The term e-waste is applied to electronic equipment and appliances that are utilised by industries and end-users, which have virtually come to the terminal of their utile life. The equipment and appliances in inquiry include facsimile machines, duplicators and telecasting screens. Classical illustrations of e-waste are the cathode beam tubings in telecastings and computing machine proctors, which are virtually exhausted. The fact that these equipment and appliances contain risky stuffs airss challenges during their disposal. On history of the famine of proper processs to pull off them, most of the e-waste sits lazily, alternatively of being recycled or being reused. Reselling and contribution to charities by their proprietor are some of the ways by which some of these equipment and appliances could be put to good usage.2.3 Composition of Solid WasteInformation on the composing of solid waste is of import in measuring alternate equipment demands, systems, and direction programme and programs for solid waste aggregation ( Tchobanoglous et al. , 1993 ) . For case, if wastes are generated from a commercial installation that consists of merely paper merchandises, the usage of particular treating equipment such as shredders and balers may be appropriate. Separate aggregation may besides be considered if different metropolis aggregation bureaus are involved. Harmonizing to ( Asase et al. , 2009 ) the composing of solid waste in the Kumasi metropolis is preponderantly made of biodegradable stuffs and high per centum of inert stuffs which include wood ash, sand and wood coal. Table 2.1 shows the solid waste composing in the Kumasi country. Table 2.1: Composition of Municipal Solid Waste ( MSW ) for Kumasi in 2011Waste constituentPercentage of Municipal Solid Waste constituentOrganic Material 40.19 Plastics 19.86 Glass/ bottles 1.20 Paper and composition board 7.04 Metallic elements 2.23 Fabrics 6.94 Inert ( Sand, ash, all right organics, destruction waste ) Material 20.84 Wood 1.71 Entire 100.00 Beginning: KMA WMD ( 2012 )2.4 Waste Management HierarchyThe waste direction hierarchy can be traced back to the seventiess, when the environment motion started to review the pattern of disposal-based waste direction. Rather than sing ‘rubbish ‘ as a homogeneous mass that should be buried, they argued that it was made up of different stuffs that should be treated otherwise – some should n't be produced, some should be reused, some recycled or composted, some should be burnt and others buried ( Schall 1992 ) . The waste hierarchy refers to the practical ways of pull offing waste with the chief purpose of pull outing maximal benefits from merchandises and bring forth minimal sum of waste, the ways are listed in order of importance. They are beginning decrease and reuse, recycle and composting, energy recovery and in conclusion, intervention and disposal. ( US EPA, 2012 ) Below is graphical representation of the waste direction Hierarchy, with the least preferable option, disposal marked at the underside of the trigon, and at the top is the most preferable option, that is beginning decrease and reuse. Unfortunately WMD of KMA pattern the least preferable option, which is the the disposal at the landfill site, that means our direction system in the city is non the best and it looks non sustainable excessively without the other intercessions shown on the diagram. Degree centigrades: UsersuserDesktopwaste_hierarchy_green_400pxw.png Figure 2.1: Waste Management Hierarchy Beginning: . ( US EPA, 2012 )2.4.1 Source Reduction and ReuseThis intercession or scheme agencies cut downing waste at beginning, cut downing the sum of waste you produce really prevents it from stacking up. To travel by this scheme, avoid unneeded packaging, and points designed to be used merely one time. Example, a lasting re-useable bags should be used for shopping alternatively of roll uping a batch of polyethene bags. Recycling points saves a batch of energy, natural resources, saves money for consumers and concerns. For illustration functional containers, vesture, furniture etc can be donated to charity alternatively of dumping them at the garbage dump to increase waste coevals. ( US EPA, 2012 ) .2.4.2 Recycling and CompostingRecyclingThe assemblage of used points and discarded stuffs and treating them into new merchandises is referred to as recycling. In recycling, there is minimization of the quantum that is otherwise discarded into the rubbish bins of communities. This consequences in comparatively clean environment, while bettering the quality of the ambient air ( Lave et al.,1999 ) . Some of the benefits of recycling waste are resource efficiency, extenuation in the impact on the environment from waste intervention and the disposal thereof. In consequence, this leads to a cleansing agent and a healthier environment. Extra benefits include a lessening in infinite for landfill sites, thereby, salvaging money and clip. There is besides a net economy in the quantum of resources required for bring forthing of new and advanced merchandises ( Tchobanoglous et al. , 2003 ) . During composting, which is a biological procedure, bacteriums and fungi – micro-organisms – help the transition of biodegradable substances into other stuffs which look like humus. This procedure leads to a substance with the features of a dirt, which is rich in C and N and provides a medium for seting harvests and trees. The composting procedure allows waste in kitchens to be put to good usage as foods through recycling some utile substances in waste nutrient and other stuffs. Composting combines the advantages of cleanliness, safety, bargain rate, while markedly understating the quantum of refuse intended for the rubbish bins. Compost stuff, which is an organic type of a fertiliser, may be used alternatively of chemical fertilisers chiefly for the growth of veggies. Another advantage of compost is its leaning to retain H2O, while doing the dirt comparatively easy to cultivate. More significantly, the ability of the works to retain foods is aided by compost ( Mensah a nd Larbi, 2005 ) . In general, the ambient conditions in Ghana are really suited for composting.2.4.3 Energy RecoveryThis intercession is retrieving functional energy such as heat, electricity, or fuel from waste stuffs that are to recycle and recycle, peculiarly plastics, through assortment procedures including burning, gasification, anaerobiotic digestion, landfill gas recovery and pyrolization. Example solid waste can be combusted at really high temperatures which produces heat, that heat is used to change over H2O in to steam. That steam can be used to turn turbines to bring forth electricity ( US EPA, 2012 ) .2.4.4 Treatment and DisposalThis intercession is the last of the assorted solid waste direction options mentioned above.There are many different methods of disposing of solid waste in the universe but the most common methods used in Ghana and other parts of Africa are landfill, unfastened dumping and incineration. Landfill is the most common and likely histories for more t han 90 per centum of the state ‘s municipal garbage even though landfills have been proven contaminates of imbibing H2O in certain countries. Landfills are constructed and operated to strict environmental criterions, illustration the line drives are designed in a manner to protect the land H2O.2.5 Waste Management IndexsWaste Management Indicators are variables that influence the public presentation of waste direction operations. These indexs are largely derived from literature and experts in the field of waste. From the contractual understandings ( signed between the WMD of KMA and the private waste direction ‘s companies in the Kumasi Metropolis, public presentation indexs like the waste direction activities and how they are suppose to put to death it ( ie. waste aggregation from house and communal garbage dump and disposal ) , operational capacity in footings of staffing, machinery and equipments are listed in it. Garcia-Sanchez ( 2007 ) besides used street cleansing, waste aggregation and the intervention of solid waste as indexs on the public presentation of Spanish solid waste aggregation.2.6 Theory of Waste ManagementIn industrialized states the waste direction patterns evolved with the 1970 ‘s concentrating on cut downing environmental impacts ( Tanskanen, 2000 ) . This was done by making controlled landfill sites ( Read, 2003 ) , set uping waste transportation Stationss or airting waste aggregation vehicle paths ( Truitt et al. 1969 ) . The 1980 ‘s and early 1990 ‘s focused on new technological solutions for waste direction while the mid 1990 ‘s until today, the focal point is on resource recovery ( Read, 2003 ) . In this respect recycling, incineration, composting and bioreactor intervention for energy and alimentary recovery methods are included in MSWM systems ( Chang and Wei, 1999 ; MacDonald, 1996a ) . Changes in waste direction policies in recent times have shifted waste direction planning from trust on landfill towards Integrated Solid Waste Management ( ISWM ) attacks ( Read, 2003 ) . New directives/legislations are being promulgated in the EU and the US on waste disposal in the involvement of the environment. Examples among them are ; the January 1st 2003 addition in revenue enhancement to 370 Swedish Kronor per ton of landfilled waste in Sweden ( RVF, 2003 ) ; and the 1993 United States ‘ Resource Conservation and Recovery Act ( RCRA ) Subtitle D which requires landfills to be impermeably lined and equipped with leachate and gas aggregation equipment ( Pacey, 1999 ) . These policies and their enforcement have helped the developed states in implementing the waste hierarchy ; bar, stuffs recovery, incineration and landfill. For case the 1993 Government Action Plan on Waste and Recycling in Denmark set out to accomplish marks of 54 % recycling, 25 % incineration and 21 % la ndfill by the twelvemonth 2000 ( Sakai et al. , 1996 ) . In the development universe nevertheless, hapless enforcement or non-existence of waste direction policies have resulted in the dependance on unfastened dumping. Improvements in the country of building healthful landfills in these parts have most frequently been supported by the World Bank and other bilateral giver bureaus ( Johannessen and Boyer, 1999 ) .2.6.1 Waste CollectionThe term waste aggregation includes non merely the aggregation of solid waste from assorted beginnings but besides the trucking of these wastes to the location where the contents of the aggregation vehicles are emptied ( Tchobanoglous et al. , 1993 ) . Waste aggregation is besides described as a constituent of waste direction which consequences in the transition of waste stuffs from the beginning of production to either the point of intervention or concluding disposal site ( Sampson, 2003 ) . The manner and mode in which waste is collected in footings of vehicle types, capacities, staffing degrees and unit of ammunition constellation depends on the nature of the aggregation. For illustration family / commercial, and the contractual agreements put in topographic point ( working hours, disposal points, stuffs collected and receptacles used, e.g. black bag, wheelie-bin, orangish poke ) . Harmonizing to Tchobanoglous et Al. ( 1993 ) , waste aggregation starts with the containers keeping stuffs that a generator has designated as no longer utile and ends with the transit of the solid waste to a location for processing or disposal. In high income countries, the private waste aggregation companies collect the waste straight from families with compactor trucks for dumping pieces in low and in-between income countries, occupants carry their waste to public waste containers provided by the Waste Management Department at communal aggregation points ( Boadi and Kuitunen, 2003 ) .2.6.2 Waste Collection Service/MethodsSolid waste aggregation systems and methods in Kumasi are unequal to cover a big portion of the metropolis, peculiarly, in hapless homesteader colonies, and unaccessible vicinity to roll up all the expected waste to be generated in the metropoliss ( Boadi and Kuitunen, 2003 ) . The chief types of waste aggregation methods are roll uping co-mingle or non-separated w aste at beginning and waste at beginning separated. Waste aggregation methods vary widely between different states and parts. Domestic waste aggregation services are frequently provided by local authorities governments, or by private industry. Developing states do non hold a formal waste-collection system even though these states are now following some of the popular waste aggregation systems around the universe. For case in Australia, the curbside aggregation is the method of disposal of waste where every urban domestic family is provided with three bins: one for recyclables, another for general waste and another for garden stuffs. These bins are provided by the municipality if requested. In Ghana the Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies are responsible for the aggregation and concluding disposal of solid waste through their Waste Management Departments ( WMDs ) and their Environmental Health and Sanitation Departments ( www.ghanadistrics.com, 2009 ) . There are two chief types of waste aggregation services that are delivered by the private operators in the Kumasi Metropolis. These are house-to-house and communal aggregation services. Peter et al. , ( 2009 ) asserted that the backing of the house-to-house aggregation services in the Kumasi Metropolis increased from 2.1 per cent of the population in 1999 to 20.8 per cent in 2005. It was besides observed that occupants of the metropolis are willing to sponsor the service if satisfactory degrees of service could be guaranteed.2.6.3 Household and Commercial Waste CollectionFamily wastes are by and large generated from places. They are gathered in waste bins, plastic or metal containers, plastic bags for aggregation by waste aggregator utilizing a waste aggregation vehicle. The waste generated from families are carried to cardinal waste aggregation point ( reassign Stationss ) where they would be loaded into a vehicle and either sent to a landfill site or to an alternate waste intervent ion installation. The sum of waste generated from families and commercial topographic points far exceeds the volume collected. Harmonizing to Boadi and Kuitunen ( 2003 ) , 60 % of the entire waste generated in Accra is collected yearly go forthing the 40 % ungathered. Harmonizing to the Kumasi Waste Management Department ( 2009 ) , and the private waste direction companies in Kumasi, their inability to roll up all the waste generated from the families and the commercial countries are as a consequence of hapless route web within the metropolis, unequal waste aggregation containers and the frequent interruption down of bulldozers and compactors at the landfill site. Harmonizing to Boadi and Kuitunen, ( 2003 ) , households resort to alternate ways of disposing their waste. For case in high income countries waste bins are non emptied in clip coercing abode to engage persons to dispose of the waste at the cardinal aggregation points. In low income countries, the containers are non remove d in clip and this causes people to dump waste in unauthorised mopess such as canals, H2O organic structures, and surface drains.2.6.4 Logisticss of Solid Waste CollectionPast methods of planning for and runing waste aggregation systems are under force per unit area, ensuing from the demand to better the aggregation systems to protect the environment and public safety. Sampson ( 2003 ) stated in his study that waste aggregation and conveyance has important environmental, wellness and safety deductions every bit good as the economic cost due to the types of logistics that are used to roll up and transport the waste. The entire measure of waste coevals keeps increasing coupled with the nature and type of waste produced in our technological society gives the complexness of the type of logistics requires for the aggregation of waste. There are a figure of barriers that limit attempts to better the efficiency of waste aggregation logistics ( Sampson, 2003 ) . These are: The inconsistent nature of waste production, with fluctuations happening on a hebdomadal and seasonal footing and from street-to-street and region-to-region, Access limitations, intending that non all belongingss can be serviced by the same vehicles, Ineffective matching of vehicles to unit of ammunitions, and Variations in stuff bringing points over clip, a state of affairs that will originate more often as stuff reprocessing and bringing to new markets increases. To better the efficiency of waste aggregation logistics the followers may be considered: Raising the issue of logistics earlier in the planning stages of incorporate waste direction systems, Phased debut of new aggregation strategies such that conveyance jobs can be addressed and costs more to the full understood prior to full strategy acceptance, Partnership working, e.g. through shared terminals, Improved apprehension of the capablenesss of the asset-base, Collection and usage of operational public presentation informations to inform future planning, Effective periodic work programming and routing, and Eventuality planning, e.g. for unplanned closing of waste disposal installations.2.6.5 Methods of Waste DisposalThere are many different methods of disposing of solid waste in the universe but the most common methods used in Ghana and other parts of Africa are landfill, unfastened dumping and incineration. Landfill is the most common and likely histories for more than 90 per centum of the state ‘s municipal garbage even though landfills have been proven contaminates of imbibing H2O in certain countries. The most common methods of disposing solid waste are described below:LandfillDisposing of waste in landfill involves burying the waste in cavities and this is the most common pattern in most states. It is the most cost effectual method of disposal, with aggregation and transit accounting for 75 per centum of the entire cost ( Bassis, 2009 ) . In a modern landfill, garbage is dispersed thin, compacted in beds and covered by a bed of clean Earth. Pollution of surface H2O and groun dwater is minimised by run alonging and contouring the fill, packing and seting the topmost screen bed, deviating drainage, and choosing proper sites non capable to deluging or high groundwater degrees. The best dirt for a landfill is clay because clay is less permeable than other types of dirt ( Mensa and Larbi, 2005 ) . Materials disposed off in a landfill can be farther secured from escapes by solidifying them in stuffs such as cement, fly ash from power workss, asphalt, or organic polymers. A properly-designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and comparatively cheap method of disposing of waste stuffs. Older, poorly-designed or poorly-managed landfills can make a figure of inauspicious environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter and coevals of liquid leachate. Another common byproduct of landfills is gas ( largely composed of methane and C dioxide ) , which is produced as a consequence of anaerobiotic break down of organic waste. This gas can make odour jobs, kill surface flora, and is a nursery gasOpen dumpingOpen mopess was a popular method of waste disposal in the early parts of the twentieth century. This involved disposing the waste in unfastened mopess without any screen or protection. Dumpss were normally located in countries where there was land in copiousness. A common site for unfastened mopess is abandoned mines, preies, swamps and hillsides. The waste is normally piled up every bit long as the equipments being used can pull off to travel in an d out of the garbage dump. Open mopess are popular in developing states as a agency of waste disposal ( Tchobanoglous et al. , 1993 ) . It is practised in the families on a smaller graduated table and sporadically burned to cut down the volume of waste and in some cases it is levelled and compacted. This is a common pattern in Ghana.IncinerationIncineration is another method of solid waste disposal. Incineration is a method of firing waste that is combustible at high temperatures in the scope of 1000 grades Celsius in other to cut down the waste to ashes. Incineration is more expensive but a safer method of disposal than landfills ( Bassis, 2009 ) . Modern incinerators are designed to destruct at least 99.9 % of the organic waste stuff they handle. Garbage burned in incinerators can poison air, dirt, and H2O. Incineration converts waste stuffs in to heat, gas, steam and ash. Communities near incinerators have objected to them because of frights about possible emanations of gaseous p ollutants ( Bach et al. , 2009 ) . The national policy in Ghana endorses the seting in topographic point of miniaturized workss for incinerating risky and wellness attention wastes. Relatively little incinerating workss have been built as portion of the wellness proviso substructure in most of the towns holding wellness installations in the state. The incinerators, which are really simplistic in building, are made up of cement, clay bricks and metal. These incinerators are normally fired by woodfuel and are easy operated and maintained by the wellness staff of the District Assemblies. It worthy of note these local incinerators do non hold the needed environmental controls ( Mensah and Larbi, 2005 ) .Recycling methodsRecycling is change overing used and cast-off stuffs into new merchandises. This is a signifier O f decrease of waste disposed, ensuing in cleansing agent environment and besides giving in fresher air to take a breath ( Lave et al. , 1999 ) . Waste recycling has some important advantages such as minimum us age of natural stuffs, cut downing imparts on environment, originating from waste intervention and disposal and makes the milieus cleansing agent and healthier. Additionally saves on landfill infinite, money, and cut downing the measure of energy needed to fabricate new merchandises ( Tchobanoglous et al.. , 1993 ) . A big figure of the waste generated in our houses can be recycled and reused. Organic kitchen waste such as remnant grocery, vegetable Peels, and spoilt or dried fruits and veggies can be recycled by seting them in the compost cavities that have been dug in the garden. Old newspapers, magazines and bottles can be sold to the adult male who buys these points from places ( United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2007 ) .CompostingComposting is a biological procedure in which micro-organisms, chiefly fungi and bacteriums, convert degradable organic waste into humus-like substance. This finished merchandise, which looks like dirt, is high in C and N and is an first-class medium for turning workss. The procedure of composting ensures that the waste produced in the kitchens is non heedlessly thrown and left to decompose. It recycles the foods and returns them to the dirt as foods. Apart from being clean, inexpensive, and safe, composting can significantly cut down the sum of disposa ble refuse. The organic fertiliser can be used alternatively of chemical fertilisers and is better when used for veggies. It increases the dirt ‘s ability to keep H2O and makes the dirt easier to cultivate. It helps the dirt to retain more of the works foods ( Mensah and Larbi, 2005 ) . Generally, conditions in Ghana are really contributing for composting in footings of the waste composing and conditions conditions. However, composting has ne'er flourished as an option for garbage intervention and disposal. Most local governments feel, based on local experience, that the running costs of composting workss are inordinate and indefensible ( Mensah and Larbi, 2005 ) . The lone known big composting works in Ghana was built with external giver support and commissioned in the early 1980s. During its early old ages of operation the works was utile in assisting cut down the volume of waste. However, high care costs adversely affected its sustainability. In the last few old ages most o f the mechanical constituents have been decommissioned and the works presently operates merely for presentation intents.2.7 Waste Costing2.7.1 Environmental CostssAdditionally, there is attractive force of insects and gnawers, which provides a oasis for xanthous febrility, the pestilence, GI parasites, worms, and assorted inauspicious human conditions. Several diseases, every bit good as malignant neoplastic diseases are caused by exposing worlds to wastes ensuing from the burnt gnawers and insects. Waste can pollute surface H2O, groundwater, dirt, and air, which causes more jobs for worlds, other species, and ecosystems. ( Diaz et al. , 2006 ) Waste intervention and disposal produces important green house gas ( GHG ) emanations, notably methane, and contributes significantly to planetary clime alteration ( International Waste Activities, 2003 ) .2.7.2 Social CostssWaste direction is a important environmental justness issue. Many of the environmental loads cited above are more frequently borne by marginalized groups, such as racial minorities, adult females, and occupants of developing states. NIMBY ( not-in-my-back-yard ) is a popular term used to depict the resistance of occupants to a proposal for a new development near to them ( Wolsink, 1994 ) . However, the demand for enlargement and siting of waste intervention and disposal installations is increasing worldwide. There is now a turning market in the transboundary motion of waste, and although most waste that flows between states goes between developed states, a important sum of waste is moved from developed to developing states ( Ray, 2008 ) .2.7.3 Economic CostssThe costs of pull offing waste are comparatively high, and the cost is frequently beared by authoritiess ( Muck and Brass, 2009 ) . Cost of operation can be reduced by expeditiously designed aggregation paths, modifying vehicles, and with public instruction. Environmental policies such as wage as you dump can cut down the cost of direction and cut down waste measures. Waste recovery ( that is, recycling, reuse ) can be cut down economic costs because it avoids pull outing natural stuffs and frequently cuts transit costs ( Carlsson Reich, 2005 ) . The location of waste intervention and disposal installations frequently has an impact on belongings values due to dust, noise, pollution, unsightliness, and negative stigma. The unrecognized sector consists usually the choosers of waste who scavenge for plastics, glass, metals, fabrics etc for sale . These scavengers can significantly alter or cut down waste collected, but there are alot of challenges that comes into drama, illustration maltreatment of workers and development, poorness, disease, ( Wilson et al. , 2006 ) .2.8 Overview of Solid Waste Management in GhanaThe 2000 Housing and Population Census reports that on the national degree, 4.8 % of families have their solid waste collected straight from their home, 7.9 % burn their family garbage, 57.6 % usage assorted family receptacles for storage and direct it to designated public mopess including communal-container Stationss or healthful sites. It is reported that 25.9 % of families dump their garbage at unspecified locations including vacant tonss, drains, embankment of H2O classs, rivers, lakes and wetlands. Chiefly, there are two solid waste aggregation systems in Ghana – door to door aggregation system which takes topographic point in the low denseness countries of the urban Centres, and communal aggregation system in the high denseness countries. There is some sum of pre-collection in countries of hapless handiness based on the usage of Manual and Motorized Tricycles introduced by Zoomlion. Waste disposal in Ghana is chiefly by landfilling and presently the state can tout of merely two Sanitary Landfill installations located in Kumasi and Tamale. Two others are under building in Sekondi-Takoradi and Tema. The other metropoliss and towns depend on garbage dumps for their waste disposal. Other systems such as incineration, waste to energy, anaerobiotic digestion, etc have so far remained at explorative phases, with the exclusion of composting which is at the execution phase at Zoomlion ( Agyepong, 2011 ) . Engineered landfills are constructed to run into specific environmental cr iterions including low permeableness clay line drive and natural flow ( gravitation based ) leachate direction ( Boyer and Johannessen, 2010 ) . The first Waste Management Department ( WMD ) , Accra Metropolitan Authority ‘s – Weapon of mass destruction, was inaugurated in 1985 with the transition of the so Mechanical Engineers Department which was entirely responsible for pull offing the workshop for vehicle/equipment fix and care to include solid waste aggregation and disposal services. The Kumasi Metropolitan Authority ‘s Waste Management Department ( KMA-WMD ) followed in 1992 with the aid of the UNDP-Kumasi Sanitation Project. The Overseas Development Association, ODA ( now DFID ) of the UK besides provided vehicles, machinery and equipment under the Kumasi Solid Waste Disposal undertaking ( 1992 – 1995 ) ( Salifu, 2011 ) .2.9.1 National Environmental Sanitation PolicyThe Environmental Sanitation Policy is aimed at developing and keeping a clean, safe and pleasant physical environment in all human colonies, to advance the societal, economic and physical wellbeing of all subdivisions of the popul ation. It comprises a figure of complementary activities, including the building and care of healthful substructure, the proviso of services, public instruction, community and single action, ordinance and statute law ( MLGRD, 1999 ) . The Policy besides outlines the functions and duties of the Community and Individuals. Guaranting good environmental sanitation is the duty of all citizens, communities, private sector, endeavors, NGOs and authorities establishments. All these histrions have an indispensable portion to play in keeping a high criterion of environmental sanitation. The policy indicates that, every person, constitution or establishment shall be responsible for: Cleansing within and in the immediate environments of the belongings they occupy, including entree ways and the drains and roads bordering the belongings ; Impermanent storage of wastes within the belongings and disposal thereof outside the belongings, as may be directed by the competent authorization ; Taking steps to forestall the genteelness of disease vectors within and in the immediate environments of the belongings they occupy ; Guaranting that the wider environment is non polluted or otherwise adversely affected by their activities ; Hygienically disposing of all wastes they generate in public countries by usage of an authorized public lavatory or solid waste container as appropriate ; Participating in all communal environmental sanitation exercisings organised by the community or its representatives ( MLGRD, 1999 ) . The policy besides entrusts in the Assemblies the power to proclaim bye-laws and ordinances to assist in their environmental sanitation direction procedure. To complement these attempts, the Judiciary is expected to set up and authorise Community Tribunals to prosecute wrongdoers against environmental sanitation bye-laws and ordinances ( MLGRD, 1999 ) . This is a clear chance for KMA to ordain rigorous environmental sanitation bye-laws to do the metropolis dwellers responsible for environmental sanitation in Kumasi to guarantee good environmental sanitation patterns.2.8.2 Environmental Sanitation Bye-Laws in the Kumasi Metropolitan AreaSound environmental jurisprudence and administration are indispensable for protecting the natural environment and the life and supports that depend on it. Governance here refers to the Assembly ‘s usage of a scope of legal tools to necessitate or advance coveted behavior. These tools could be traditional ordinances, environmental appraisals, info rmation revelation demands, market mechanisms, economic inducements, or public policies to advance voluntary action on a graduated table that will heighten urban environmental sanitation and environmental protection. The sum-up of the Bye-laws includes the followers: Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly ( House Owners and Occupier ) Bye-Laws, 1995. – This bye-law defines the duties of house proprietors, belongings proprietors, renters or other residents in maintaining their immediate environment clean. It besides prescribes the penalty that should be meted out with wrongdoers of the bye-laws. Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly ( Sanitation ) Bye-Laws, 1995. – This bye-law besides covers general sanitation or hygiene. It describes what constitutes a sanitation offense and what should non be done by both belongings proprietors and walkers to do pollution in the metropolis. Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly ( Cleansing ) Bye-Laws, 1995 – The cleansing bye-law regulates activities that promote ocular pollution and nuisances and prescribes punishments for such offenses.2.9 Challenges of Waste Management – Private-Sector Engagement as RedressBefore 1995 solid waste direction in Ghana was run strictly as a authorities monopoly ( Post et al. , 2003 ) . However the authorities was neglecting to adequately turn to the healthful demands of its citizens and failures in public service opened the sphere to assorted manners of public-private cooperation ( Thompson, 2010 ) . The formal battle of private sector in everyday services, commenced earnestly with the denationalization of cesspool emptying services in Kumasi. It was a logical next-step to formalise private-sector engagement in solid waste direction every bit good. And so in transporting out the Urban Environment Review, in 1994, with support from the World Bank, the issue of turn toing institutional functions was given much importance. The urban reappraisal which led to the readying of the first-phase of the Urban Environmental Sanitation Project ( UESPI ) which is in its 2nd stage ( UESPII ) influenced the navigation of franchise zones for solid waste services in Accra, Sekondi-Takoradi, Kumasi and Tamale. The purpose was for an incremental enlargement of zones to finally cover the whole of each metropolis – which is mostly the agreement we see today ( Salifu, 2011 ) . In a presentation made at a UN conference on edifice partnerships for traveling towards zero waste, Agyepong ( 2011 ) outlined some issues identified by private operator ( s ) as barriers to private-sector-participation or public-private-partnerships which included ; proliferation of statute law that entrenches public-monopoly of bringing of services, incorrect attitudes of the general populace to solid waste disposal, sustainable funding, hapless planning and rapid urbanisation, weak human resource capacity and research support base, and political relations. Harmonizing to Salifu ( 2011 ) as portion of the solid waste direction betterment services of the five largest metropoliss in Ghana UESP1 implemented an luxuriant strategy for private sector engagement. Subsequent acceptance of franchise direction for the aggregation of solid waste meant to get down on pilot footing was replaced with the debut of the City and Country Waste Limited city-wide catching enterprise in Accra by AMA. The constrictions of the both the franchise system and contract manner of service bringing has included: The Torahs declaring such franchise or contract zones were simply announced without the corresponding gazeted bye-laws backup these declarations ; The capacity of private operators to roll up the fees ( under franchise ) ; Where pockets of communal-storage containers at public topographic points like markets and lorry Parkss are within the franchise zones, costs of these were still to be borne by MMDAs through their IGFs, with high default rates of payment of contractors – in some cases up to 6 months ; Poor aggregation modus operandis by private operators that eroded assurance of occupants ; Start-up pilot zones gave the feeling of an experiment, peculiarly when aggregation by the metropolis ‘s ain side-loading truck ( in the instance of Kumasi ) was still traveling on in countries where fee-collection was left to drivers and secret agents ;Other establishments like the Army, Prisons, Police, Civil Aviation and others operated parallel aggregation strategies for their barracks and from cottages of senior forces.

Prevalence of Escherichia Coli on Money

PREVALENCE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI ON PHILIPPINE PESO BILL WITHIN THE VICINITY OF ILOILO CITY 2012-2013 A Research Paper Presented to The Faculty College of Medical Laboratory Science Department Central Philippine University Iloilo City In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Research 1 JUSTINE GRACE G. JIMENEA ISAAC JAMES T. LEDESMA MAJA HANNAH LOU L. LOJA ROBERTO R. MANALO JR. JIRAH L. PEDROSA MARCH 2013 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study A classic characteristic of human parasitic and bacterial agents is the evolution of routes for transmission pathogens to susceptible hosts.The environment plays a critical role in transmission to humans, with many environmental materials serving as vehicles. Microbial contaminants may be transmitted directly, through hand-to-hand contact, or indirectly, via food or other inanimate objects like fomites. (Rote, et al. , 2010) According to Umeh, et al (2007), Contamination of objects by pathogenic microorganism is much a public hea lth concern as contaminated materials can be sources of transmitting pathogens. Items that pass from hand to hand are likely to be contaminated with disease causing microorganisms especially if handled with unclean hands or kept in dirty surroundings.Ahmed, et al (2010) pointed out that paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in most countries worldwide. Paper currencies are widely used and each currency is exchanged many times during the time it circulates. If some of these paper money are contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, there is a potential to spread these microorganism. Pope, et al (2002) mentioned, since bacteria, have been shown to spread from person to person via contact with fomites paper money, therefore, presents a particular risk of public health.Paper currency is commonly and routinely passed among individuals. Thus bacteria could be spread on the surface of paper currency. Paper currency, as asserted by Oyero, et al (2007) can be contaminated by droplets during coughing, sneezing, touching with previously contaminated hands or other materials and placement on dirty surface. Paper currency is commonly handled by various categories of people during transaction. The possibility that paper currency might act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of potential pathogenic microorganisms was suggested in 1970s.Various pathogens related with throat infection, pneumonia, tonsillitis, peptic ulcers, urino-genital tract infection, gastroenteritis and lung abscess had been reported. (Pope, et al. , 2002) The money which may get contaminated during production, storage, after production and during use are always in circulation. Numerous research on currency in several countries indicated bacterial contamination. A study in Bangladesh reported thatEscherichia coli (58%),Klebsiella(50%), Staphylococcus aureus(25%), Salmonella (15%), Bacillus (9%), Pseudomonas (7%) and Vibrio cholera (5%) were recovered from Bangladesh Paper Currenc y Notes (Taka). Ahmed, et al,. 2010) In another study carried out in Nigeria, the bacteria isolated E. coli (80%), Aerobacter (59%), Salmonella (40. 9%), yeast cells (36. 4%), Streptococcus fecalis(31. 8%), Staphylococcus aureus( 27. 3%) and the coagulase negative staphylococci (18. 2%). (Umeh, et al. , 2007) A similar study was also conducted in Nepal and reported thatStaphylococcusaureus, S. Epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Klebsiella pneumonia, Salmonella choleraesius, E. coli, Enterobacteraerogenesand cloaceaewere isolated from paper money of Nepal. (Lamichhane, et al. 2009) In another study in India, 100% of the currency notes of Indian upee were contaminated with bacteria. Mainly three species including E. coli, Proteus spp. And Staphylococcus aureuswere isolated. (Bhat, et al. , 2010) In another study in India, currency samples of different denominations from different occupational groups were evaluated for isolation of microbial contaminants and Staphylococcus aureu, E. coli, Bacillus spp. , Klebsiella spp. , Proteus mirablisand fungus like Aspergillusnigerand Fusariumwere isolated from these paper currency notes. (Rote, et al. 2010) Although, a lot of studies on the microbiological status of paper currency have been carried out elsewhere, data on the microbial contamination of the Peso (Philippine currency) is scanty. In order to know the prevalence of Escherichia coli on Philippine Peso bill within the vicinity of Iloilo City in the year 2012-2013, this study is to be conducted. General Objectives What is the prevalence rate of E. coli contamination on the Philippine peso bill of Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ)? Specific Objectives 1. ) What is the prevalence rate of E. coli contamination on the 20 peso bill? . ) What is the prevalence rate of E. coli contamination on the 50 peso bill? 3. ) What is the prevalence rate of E. coli contamination on the 100 peso bill? Research Paradigm Independent variableDependent variable Location:Public Utility Jeepn ey (PUJ)Value:20 PHP50 PHP100 PHP| Prevalence rate of Escherichia coli contamination| Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Study Definition of Terms To provide clarity and understanding, the following terms were defined conceptually and operationally. Bacteria- are minute, unicellular organisms that reproduce by binary fission.They are considered prokaryotes due to the absence of nuclear membrane. They possess both DNA and RNA. They sensitive to penicillins, tetracycline and chloramphenicol. (Moraleta, Review of Microbiology) In the study, the bacteria is the E. coli to be identified. Escherichia coli- or E. coli is a bacterium that is commonly found in the gut of humans and other warm-blooded animals. While most strains are harmless, some can cause severe foodborne disease. E. coli  infection is usually transmitted through consumption of contaminated water or food, such as undercooked meat products and raw milk.Symptoms of disease include abdominal cramps and diarrhoea, which may b e bloody. Fever and vomiting may also occur. Most patients recover within 10 days, although in a few cases the disease may become life-threatening. (WHO, 2012) As used in this study,E. coli is the subject of the study and it is isolated in the surfaces different peso bill. Contamination-The act or process of  contaminating; pollution; defilement; taint; also, that which contaminates. (http://www. merriam-webster. com/) In this study, contamination refers how high or low E. oli bacteria level is found on the surface of the peso bill. Denomination-a value or size of a series of values or sizes. (http://www. merriam-webster. com/) As used in thisstudy, 20, 50, 100 are used as denomination. Paper bill- (often known as a  bill,  paper money  or simply a  note) is a type ofnegotiable instrument  known as a  promissory note, made by a  bank, payable to the bearer on demand. (http://en. wikipedia. org) In this study, paper bill was tested for the presence or absence of E. co li. Philippine peso- is the currency of the  Philippines.The peso is usually denoted by the symbol â€Å"? â€Å". Other ways of writing the Philippine peso sign are â€Å"PHP†, â€Å"PhP†, â€Å"Php†, and/or â€Å"P†. (http://www. wikipedia. org/) As used in this study, Philippine peso paper bill was tested for the presence of E. coli. Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ)- are the most popular means of  public transportation  in the Philippines. (http://www. wikipedia. org/) In this study, this is the location of the Philippine peso billwhere the E. coli is to be isolated. Significance of the Study The result of the study will benefit the following:Department of Health. May provide information on how to properly handle and care for money to prevent the risk of Escherichia coli contamination from hand-to-hand communication. The Medical Researchers. They may use this study as reference for future studies especially in the prevention of the deadly disease c aused by Escherichia coli on the circulating money. Commercial Banks. They may have an idea that Escherichia coli can inhabit the paper bill and cause such disease. Hence, they will come up bacteria-free money. Jeepney Drivers.May help them in protecting their selves from being the courier of contaminated money from one person to another. The public. The result will provide information and awareness about money contaminated by Escherichia coli circulates, and find ways in preventing disease and reduce mortality. Future researcher. The result of the study may also be used by other future researcher as a reference or basis for future researcher or investigation. Scope and Limitation of the Study This study aims to determine the prevalence of Escherichia coli contamination on Philippine peso bill within the vicinity of Iloilo City.A total of 45 paper currency of denominations, fifteen paper currencies of each: 20 PhP, 50 PhP and 100 PhP in circulation were randomly collected in 15 jeep neys at different times. Coins were excluded from the study. Paper currencies were gathered from Jaro-CPU Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ) from CPU to Iloilo City route and vice versa. This study is conducted during the month of March until May in the year 2013. Persons handling the bill were asked to deposit them in sterile polyethylene bags, sealed and taken to the Medical Laboratory Science Research Laboratory of Central Philippine University, for analysis. CHAPTER 2REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES This chapter deals with the related literature and studies relevant to the study of Escherichia coli contamination on paper money bills. Money in the form of notes or coins is handled by everyone, and ‘dirty' money (money contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms) is always in circulation. Contamination may occur during production, during storage after production, and during use. Microorganisms on the skin can be transferred from cashiers, salespeople and the general public to the currency notes that they handle. Contamination from the anal region, wounds, nasal secretions and aerosols enerated by sneezing and coughing are potential sources of transfer of microorganisms to currency notes during handling. Staphylococcus epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa  and  Klebsiellaaerogenes  have been reported to survive well on the skin,and are known to be transferred from fabrics to hand as well as from hand to fabrics. (Tswana, 2000) Items that are passed from hand to hand are likely to be contaminated with disease-causing bacteria particularly if carried with unclear hands, or kept in a dirty environment. Similarly, paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide.Currency contamination with pathogenic bacteria is of much public health concern as contaminated materials can be sources of serious pathogens. Paper currency, therefore presents a particular risk to public health, since they go in circulation and contaminate t he hands of others transmitting pathogenic organisms in the process. (Uneke&Ogbu, 2007) Pathogenic bacteria that may survive on the currency banknotes may serve as a potential source of enteropathogens causing food poisoning because food vendors handle and serve food and at the same time handle currency banknotes as they sell. Cardoenet al. , 2009; Lamichhaneet al. , 2009) The incidence of food poisoning is on the increase worldwide, although it is estimated that only 10% of cases are reported – just the tip of the iceberg. Money bill play a major role in transmission of pathogenic bacteria. Some mathematical models have been developed to help understand the movements of currency and how this might contribute to the global spread of disease. One of the main sources of pathogenic or food-poisoning bacteria is people. People commonly carry these bacteria in their nose, mouth, wounds and intestines, and on their skin.There are several reports of the occurrence of microorganisms, in particular bacteria, on cash – banknotes and coins. A study in the US showed that only 6% of banknotes tested were free from microbial contamination. Dirty money Modern banknotes are made from a special blend of 75% cotton and 25% linen with small segments of fibre, so ‘paper’ money is something of a misnomer. The ‘paper’ is referred to as the substrate during the manufacturing process; this is an appropriate name as bacteria require a substrate for growth.The cotton/linen/fibre combinations of banknotes produce a strong bond and do not pull apart, unlike the fibres of ordinary paper. The average life span of a low denomination paper banknote is about 24 months. In the early 1980s, an American Bank developed polyethylene fibres for use as currency and they are still in use in some Central American countries. Non-fibrous, non-porous, polymer banknotes, developed by the Reserve Bank of Australia, were first issued as currency in 1988. The banknotes were made from biaxially oriented polypropylene that made them more durable, with security features that rendered them difficult to counterfeit. Aidoo, 2011) Various routes are known that lead to the contamination of paper bill. Handling of it results in the transfer of bacteria from money onto hands or from hands onto money. Individuals who cough or sneeze into their hands can easily transfer bacteria onto currency when they handle it. Viruses may also be transmitted when infected people touch surfaces, such as banknotes, that are then touched by others. In the hospitality and catering industry, it is unacceptable for staff to use one hand to handle food and the other to handle money.Food, either cooked or uncooked, may contain bacteria which can be transferred either directly or indirectly through a medium such as a work surface onto currency. This may occur particularly with street food, mobile food vendors and in retail outlets at the counter. Obviously, the transfer of pathoge nic bacteria to food that is ready to be eaten and that requires no further heat treatment could have serious consequences. Should money be handled between hand washing and food handling, then it is equally important to repeat the process of hand washing before handling high-risk food.Wallets, purses, cash registers and other ‘closed’ environments are conducive for microbial growth because they create warm and moist conditions. Transfer of micro-organisms from one banknote to another in such closed environments may also be common. (Aidoo, 2011) Money on which pathogenic microorganisms might survive represents an often overlooked reservoir for enteric disease (Michaels, 2002). In most parts of the developed world, there is a popular belief that the simultaneous handling of food and money contributes to the incidence of food-related public health incidents (Food Science Australia [FSA], 2000).It goes without saying that bacteria are everywhere in the environment and most of these microbes are harmless to humans. Should germs on money worry us? Surprisingly, studies of bacteria on money are scarce. In 1972 a study in the Journal of the American Medical Association studied bacteria from 200 coins and bills and found harmful germs like fecal bacteria and Staphylococcus aureus on 13 percent of coins and 42 percent of notes. The study concluded: â€Å"Money is truly dirty. † (http://christophreilly. hubpages. com/) Micro-organisms commonly associated with banknotes include Staphylococcus aureus, ? haemolytic Streptococcus, Enterobacter spp. , Acinetobacter spp. , Pseudomonas spp. , Bacillusspp. , Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. , viruses, yeasts and moulds. Some of these bacteria are pathogenic, while others may cause opportunistic infections. The predominant, recurrent pathogenic bacteria found on banknotes are S. aureus, Bacillus spp. and Escherichia spp. Many members of the Enterobacteriaceae are found in the gut of animals and humans, and th eir presence in food or on inanimate objects and surfaces is a good indicator of poor hygiene.Members of the genera Enterobacter, Escherichia and Klebsiella isolated from banknotes may not themselves cause serious illness; however, their isolation from money may indicate the presence of other pathogenic organisms. Escherichia coliis an important member of the faecal coliform group and its presence on banknotes is of public health concern, especially as some strains can of course cause serious illness. Species of the Gram-negative genus Pseudomonas, which can cause serious opportunistic infections, have also been isolated from banknotes.S. aureus is the predominant bacterium present on the surface of banknotes and it is also a common cause of food poisoning. This organism is indicative of poor standards of hygiene particularly during food handling and/or preparation. Many people in the adult population carry S. aureus on their skin, in their nasal cavity, and in septic cuts, boils an d spots. Coagulase-positive S. aureus is readily isolated from banknotes and the toxins it produces may cause toxic shock syndrome. It has also been implicated in pneumonia.Streptococci are part of the normal microflora in the mouth, skin, intestine and upper respiratory tract of humans. Although many streptococcal species are non-pathogenic, some have been implicated in meningitis and pneumonia. Bacillus spp. are spore-formers and can withstand harsh, adverse conditions, such as drying. Some species, for example Bacillus cereus, cause two types of food poisoning: diarrhoeal (heat-labile toxin) and emetic (heat-stable toxin). (Aidoo, 2011) The surface of ‘paper’ banknotes is not smooth, but irregular, and can harbour many different types of microorganisms.The two main factors that determine the occurrence of bacteria on currency are (i) the material that the banknotes are made from and (ii) the age of the banknote. Bacteria have enormous capabilities to allow them to su rvive in adverse conditions. Two of the most important strategies for survival are their ability to adhere to surfaces and the ability to form biofilms (multicellular aggregates). Members of some genera, such as Bacillus, may form spores and can survive attached to banknotes for many years. Formation of a biofilm or a spore is controlled by genetic activity of the bacterium.Bacterial cells on banknotes are measured by the number of colony-forming units (c. f. u. ) per cm2 of banknote. A banknote may contain up to 106c. f. u. cm–2, whilst a coin may have up to 103c. f. u. cm–2. Studies have shown that polymer-based banknotes often have a relatively low bacterial count compared with the cotton-based ‘paper’ banknotes. This may be due to various physicochemical parameters of polymers. For example, a negatively charged and hydrophilic synthetic polymer would adversely affect bacterial attachment. (Vriesekoop et. al. , 2010) Escherichia coli, also known as E. o li is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms (endotherms). Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some types can cause serious food poisoning in humans, and are occasionally responsible for food contamination. (CDC National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, 2012) The harmless strains are part of the normal flora of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K2, and by preventing the establishment of pathogenic bacteria within the intestine. (Hudault et al. , 2001).Fecal–oral transmission is the major route through which pathogenic strains of the bacterium cause disease. Cells are able to survive outside the body for a limited amount of time, which makes them ideal indicator organisms to test environmental samples for fecal contamination. There is, however, a growing body of research that has examined environmentally persistent E. coli which can survive for extended period s outside of the host. (Ishii &Sadowsky, 2008) Escherichia coli (or E. coli) is the most prevalent infecting organism in the family of gram-negative bacteria known as enterobacteriaceae.E. coli is often referred to as the best or most-studied free-living organism. More than 700 serotypes of E. coli have been identified. The â€Å"O† and â€Å"H† antigens on the bacteria and their flagella distinguish the different serotypes. Indeed, some E. coli are beneficial, while some cause infections other than gastrointestinal infections, such as urinary tract infections. The E. coli that are responsible for the numerous reports of contaminated foods and beverages are those that produce Shiga toxin, so called because the toxin is virtually identical to that produced by Shigelladysenteria type 1. Eisenstein et al, 2000) Strains of E. coli that causes diarrhea in man †¢ Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) – causes diarrhea, but the molecular mechanisms of colonization and a etiology are different. EPEC lack fimbriae, ST and LT toxins, but they use an adhesin known as intimin to bind host intestinal cells. This virotype has an array of virulence factors that are similar to those found in Shigella, and may possess a shiga toxin. Adherence to the intestinal mucosa causes a rearrangement of actin in the host cell, causing significant deformation. EPEC cells are moderately invasive (i. . they enter host cells) and elicit an inflammatory response. A change in intestinal cell ultrastructure due to â€Å"attachment and effacement† is likely the prime cause of diarrhea in those afflicted with EPEC. (University of Wisconsin–Madison Department of Bacteriology, 2007) †¢ Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) – Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, or ETEC, is the name given to a group of E. coli that produce special toxins which stimulate the lining of the intestines causing them to secrete excessive fluid, thus producing diarrhea. (cdc. gov, 2004) à ¢â‚¬ ¢ Enteroinvasive E. oli (EIEC) – this infection causes a syndrome that is identical to Shigellosis, with profuse diarrhea and high fever. EIEC are highly invasive, and they utilize adhesin proteins to bind to and enter intestinal cells. They produce no toxins, but severely damage the intestinal wall through mechanical cell destruction. ( Lan et al, 2004). †¢ Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) – is a subgroup of diarrhoeagenic E. coli (DEC) that during the past decade has received increasing attention as a cause of watery diarrhea, which is often persistent. EAEC have been isolated from children and adults worldwide.As well as sporadic cases, outbreaks of EAEC-caused diarrhea have been described. (sgmjournals. org, 2003) †¢ Diffusely adherent E. coli (DAEC) – may cause disease in immunologically naive or malnourished children. Discrepancies among epidemiological studies could be explained by age-dependent susceptibility to diarrhea or by the use of a n inappropriate detection method such as DNA probing. The current prospective case-control study was done to determine the role of DAEC strains as a cause of acute diarrhea in northeastern Brazil, where childhood diarrhea is endemic. ( M. M. Levine. 1990) †¢ Shiga toxin-producing E. oli (STEC) – Some strains of E. coli produce a toxin called Shiga toxin that causes diarrhea and can lead to severe illness. These Shiga toxin-producing E. coli are sometimes called STEC (pronounced â€Å"S-TECK). STEC can be spread from cattle and other animals to people through raw or undercooked meat, unpasteurized milk, or through contact with an infected animal. People can also get infected by consuming contaminated water, raw produce or unpasteurized juice or cider. Foods can become contaminated with bacteria from manure in the field or from raw beef or raw beef juices in the kitchen.People with STEC who do not wash hands well after a bowel movement can spread it to others. (kingcounty . gov, 2005) The genera Escherichia and Salmonella diverged around 102 million years ago, which coincides with the divergence of their hosts: the former being found in mammals and the latter in birds and reptiles. This was followed by a split of the escherichian ancestor into five species (E. albertii, E. coli, E. fergusonii, E. hermannii and E. vulneris. ) The last E. coli ancestor split between 20 and 30 million years ago. ( Lecointre et al. 2007) In 1885, a German pediatrician, Theodor Escherich, first discovered this species isolated from the feces of newborns and called it Bacterium coli commune due to the fact it is found in the colon and early classifications of Prokaryotes placed these in a handful of genera based on their shape and motility (at that time Ernst Haeckel's classification of Bacteria in the kingdom Monera was in place). Bacterium coli was the type species of the now invalid genus Bacterium when it was revealed that the former type species (â€Å"Bacterium tril oculare†) was missing.Following a revision of Bacteria it was reclassified as Bacillus coli by Migula in 1895 and later reclassified in the newly created genus Escherichia, named after its original discoverer. ( Castellani and Chalmers, 2009) The genus belongs in a group of bacteria informally known as â€Å"coliforms†, and is a member of the Enterobacteriaceae family (â€Å"the enterics†) of the Gammaproteobacteria. (Garrity, 2005) Escherichia coli encompass an enormous population of bacteria that exhibit a very high degree of both genetic and phenotypic diversity. Genome sequencing of a large number of isolates of E. oli and related bacteria shows that a taxonomic reclassification would be desirable. However, this has not been done, largely due to its medical importance and E. coli remains one of the most diverse bacterial species: only 20% of the genome is common to all strains. (Lukjancenko et. al. , 2010) In fact, from the evolutionary point of view, the mem bers of genus Shigella (S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii, S. sonnei) should be classified as E. coli strains, a phenomenon termed taxa in disguise. Similarly, other strains of E. coli (e. g. he K-12 strain commonly used in recombinant DNA work) are sufficiently different that they would merit reclassification. (Lan; Reeves, 2002) A strain is a sub-group within the species that has unique characteristics that distinguish it from other strains. These differences are often detectable only at the molecular level; however, they may result in changes to the physiology or lifecycle of the bacterium. For example, a strain may gain pathogenic capacity, the ability to use a unique carbon source, the ability to take upon a particularecological niche or the ability to resist antimicrobial agents. Different strains of E. oli are often host-specific, making it possible to determine the source of fecal contamination in environmental samples. For example, knowing which E. coli strains are pre sent in a water sample allows researchers to make assumptions about whether the contamination originated from a human, another mammal or a bird. (Feng et. al. , 2002) The bacteria normally adhere to the mucus or the epithelium on the wall of the intestines, and a single strain can last for months or years. E. coli is one of the most studied and best understood organism, but the organism's role and how it colonizes isn't very well understood.Freter's Nutrient-Niche theory best describes E. coli's role: The ecological functions of E. coli depend on the nutrient availability within the intestines of the host organism. Since there are so many different nutrients that can be found within the intestines, it is said that they contain a balanced ecosystem because there are so many different nutrient-defined functions where the E. coli colonize. This is dependent on the preferred nutrient for that particular population occupying the niche. E. coli can also be found outside of the body in fae cally-contaminated environments such as water or mud. (bioweb. wlax. edu, 2008) The optimal growth of E. coli occurs at 37 degrees Celsius but some laboratory strains can multiply at temperatures of up to 49 degrees C. Growth can be driven by aerobic or anaerobic respiration. (answers. ask. com, 2010) As E. coli is part of the common micro? ora in the large intestine, it is accustomed to a pH of 7-8. As glucose is absorbed in the small intestine, the E. coli would be used to low concentrations. However, as glucose is its energy source, if excess glucose were available for consumption, it would be expected that the E. coli would utilise it and grow at a faster rate.Salt (NaCl) is absorbed in the colon, so the amount of salt that the E. coli is exposed to depends on how much salt is consumed by the host organism. However, because of the mechanism of osmosis, extremely high levels as well as complete absence of salt could be lethal to E. coli bacteria. (APUA, 2007 How Antibiotics Work – the Mechanism of Action , Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics,) You get an E. coli infection by coming into contact with the feces of humans or animals. This can happen when you drink water or eat food that has been contaminated by feces. Healthwise, 2011) E. coli infection can cause human illness when E. coli is ingested through various modes of transmission, including through food and water sources, animal-to-human contact, and person-to-person contact. (Clark, 2012) And according to the (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) CDC, the transmission of these bacteria to humans may occur in the following manner: †¢Meat, such as beef from cows, may become contaminated when organisms are accidently mixed in with beef, especially when it is ground. Meat contaminated with E. coli does not smell and looks normal.It is important to thoroughly cook the beef. †¢Infection may occur after swimming in or drinking water that has been contaminated with E. coli. â € ¢Person-to-person contact in families and in child-care and other institutional-care centers are also places where the transmission of the bacteria can occur. However, the CDC also indicates the way E. coli is transmitted may change over time. (medicalcenter. osu. edu, 2006) To help avoid food poisoning and prevent infection, handle food safely. Cook meat well, wash fruits and vegetables before eating or cooking them, and avoid unpasteurized milk and juices.You can also get the infection by swallowing water in a swimming pool contaminated with human waste. (nlm. nih. gov, 2012) Pathogenic Escherichia coli, or E. coli, is believed to mostly live in the intestines of cattle. Certain serotypes of E. coli have also been found in the intestines of chickens, sheep, and pigs. (Clark, 2012) E. coli in food E. coli can get into meat during processing. If the infected meat is not cooked to 160 °F (71 °C), the bacteria can survive and infect you when you eat the meat. This is the most common way people become infected with E. coli.Any food that has been in contact with raw meat can also become infected. Other foods that can be infected with E. coli include: Raw milk or dairy products. Bacteria can spread from a cow's udders to its milk. Check the labels on dairy products to make sure they contain the word â€Å"pasteurized. † This means the food has been heated to destroy bacteria. Raw fruits and vegetables, such as lettuce, alfalfa sprouts, or unpasteurized apple cider or other unpasteurized juices that have come in contact with infected animal feces. E. coli in water Human or animal feces infected with E. oli sometimes get into lakes, pools, and water supplies. People can become infected when a contaminated city or town water supply has not been properly treated with chlorine or when people accidentally swallow contaminated water while swimming in a lake, pool, or irrigation canal. E. coli from person-to-person contact The bacteria can also spread from o ne person to another, usually when an infected person does not wash his or her hands well after a bowel movement. E. coli can spread from an infected person's hands to other people or to objects. Person-to-person transmission of E. oli occurs through a fecal-oral route, and is particularly common among infants and young children due to their unrefined hygienic practices. Person-to-person transmission of E. coli has also been known to occur between infected individuals and their caregivers, and between infected handlers of certain objects. (WebMD, 2010) In a study entitled â€Å"Microbial Contamination in 20-Peso Banknotes in Monterrey, Mexico†, the banknotes came from various sources, including banks, toll booths, convenience stores, restaurants, cafeterias, and yogurt stores, among others.Samples were randomly obtained and banknotes were placed in a sterile polyethylene bag. The bag was sealed and the sample was taken to the laboratory. All currency banknotes were in good ph ysical condition. Each banknote was placed in 5-mL sterile saline for 24 hours. A sterile, cotton-tipped swab was briefly introduced in the saline and the swab was seeded with a portion of the saline homogenized in blood agar plates and incubated for 48 hours at 37 °C in aerobic conditions. Plates were then examined for bacterial growth and the colonies underwent Gram stain.Gram-negative colonies were grown on Eosin methylene blue agar plates and identified with the Crystal Identification System (Becton Dickinson). Gram-positive cocci were grown on azide agar plates and identified by conventional biochemical tests. Identification of yeasts was performed with CHROMagar Candida (Becton Dickinson). Of the 70 currency banknotes on which bacteriological analysis was conducted, 48 (69%) were found to be contaminated with several microbial species (Table 1).Sixteen species isolates were obtained from the banknotes: 14 bacterial species (four [23%] Gram positive and 10 [63%] Gram negative ) and two (13%) yeast species. The most prevalent species observed was Candida kruseii (19 banknotes, 27%) followed by Burkholderiacepacia (nine banknotes, 13%). Of the 70 banknotes included, 22 (31%) showed no growth. Four bills (5. 7%) yielded bacteria considered pathogenic to healthy hosts and the other 44 contaminated bills (63%) yielded bacteria considered potentially pathogenic to hospitalized or immunocompromised hosts.Additionally, 11 bills showed more than one microbial species. Pope and co-authors analyzed 68 $1 bills collected from a school and a grocery store and found that five (7%) were contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, 59 (87%) were contaminated with opportunistic pathogens, and just four (6%) were free of bacteria (Pope et al. , 2002). Unlike the study by Pope and co-authors, in our study 31% of the banknotes were negative. Our results are similar to a previous publication (Abrams; Waterman, 1972), in which 70% of banknotes were contaminated with bacteria.Of the se banknotes, 60% contained pathogens, including S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa. Medical personnel seem to play an important role in contamination of paper currency, since it has been reported that 13% of coins and 42% of currency collected from laboratory personnel were contaminated with S. aureus, E. coli, Klebsiella sp. , and Proteus mirabilis (Abrams; Waterman, 1972). Additionally, the culture of 100 banknotes and 102 coins collected from medical personnel showed that 3% of coins and 11% of banknotes were contaminated with opportunistic pathogens (KhinNwe et al. 1989). In our study, we did not include banknotes collected in any hospital, but banknotes collected near hospital facilities were contaminated with opportunistic pathogens such as B. cepacia and A. baumannii. Uneke and Ogbu assessed the potential of Nigerian currency notes to act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of pathogenic parasites and bacteria. Currency notes obtained from four major cities in Nigeria were evaluated according to standard techniques. Fifty-four (21. 6 percent [95 percent CI: 16. 50-26. 0]) of the first batch of 250 notes, which underwent parasitological analysis, were contaminated with enteric parasites; 133 (53. 2 percent [95 percent CI: 47. 02-59. 39]) of the second batch of 250 notes, which underwent bacteriological analysis, were found to be contaminated with bacteria. Parasites that were isolated from the notes included Ascarislumbricoides (8. 0 percent), Enterobiusvermicularis (6. 8 percent), Trichuristrichiura (2. 8 percent), and Taenia species (4. 0 percent). Bacteria that were isolated were Streptococcus species (21. percent), Staphylococcus species (12. 8 percent), Escherichia coli (13. 2 percent), and Bacillus species (5. 6 percent). Among dirty/mutilated currency notes, parasite contamination and bacterial contamination were both significantly (p ; . 05) more pervasive (30. 6 percent and 73. 8 percent, respectively) than they were among clean a nd mint currency notes. Lower-denomination notes were more likely to be contaminated than were higher-denomination notes, although the difference was not statistically significant (p ; . 05).Parasite contamination and bacteria contamination were both most frequent in notes obtained from butchers and beggars. These results suggest that currency notes may be contaminated, especially with bacteria and enteric parasites, and may serve as sources of infection. The possibility that currency notes might act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of potential pathogenic microorganisms was suggested in the 1970s (Abrams; Waterman, 1972). Paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide.It is used for every type of commerce, from buying milk at a local store to trafficking in sex and drugs. All this trade is hard on currency, with lower-denomination notes receiving the most handling because they are exchanged many times (Gadsby, 1998). Although paper cu rrency is made to take abuse (up to 4,000 folds in each direction) in most parts of the world, including in Nigeria (where paper currency is a rugged mix of 75 percent cotton and 25 percentlinen), it lasts less than a few years in circulation (Gadsby, 1998).The average U. S. dollar, for instance-like most currency notes worldwide-lasts a mere 18 months (Gadsby). Paper currency also provides a large surface area as a breeding ground for pathogens (Podhajny, 2004). Oddly, publications regarding the degree to which paper money is contaminated with bacteria are few and far between, as the authors found when they conducted a Medline search in December 2005 (Abrams; Waterman, 1972; El-Dars; Hassan, 2005; Goktas;Oktay, 1992; Jiang ; Doyle, 1999; Khin et al. 1989; Michaels, 2002; Pope et al. , 2002; Singh et al. , 2002; Xu et al. , 2005). Furthermore, the search found no documented study of the parasitological status of currency notes (as of December 2005). Scientific information on the con tamination of money by microbial agents is also lacking in most developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria. This dearth of information may have contributed to the absence of public health policies or legislation on currency usage, handling, and circulation in many parts of Africa.Although the studies done in the United States and Australia have had no major impact on policies or legislation on currency handling and circulation in those countries, they have fostered a higher level of public awareness about the potential for currency contamination by microorganisms (Dow Jones News, 1998; FSA, 2000; Michaels; Jiang ; Doyle; Pope et al. ). In the United States, a whole division of the Department of Treasury deals with what is termed â€Å"mutilated currency,† and the department Web site boasts many examples of beleaguered, burned, buried, water-damaged money (Siddique, 2003).Isolation of various bacterial contaminants from the currency notes was performed via s tandard techniques described previously (Gilchrist, 1993; Singh et al. , 2002). Briefly, a sterile, cotton-tipped swab moistened with sterile physiological saline was used to swab both sides of the currency note. The swabs were directly inoculated on blood agar and MacConkey agar. The pairs of inoculated media were incubated aerobically at 35-37 °C for 24 hours and then examined for bacterial growth according to standard protocol described previously (Cheesbrough, 2000).The authors isolated bacteria by assessing colony characteristics and Gram reaction, and by conducting catalase and coagulase tests; hemolysis, sugar fermentation, and other biochemical tests, including tests for indole production, citrate utilization, and urase activity; triple sugar iron (TSI) agar tests (for glucose, sucrose, and lactose fermentation); gas and hydrogen sulfide production tests; and oxidase tests, according to protocols described previously (Cheesbrough). Bacteria were identified but were not qua ntified.Microbial contaminants can be transmitted directly by hand-to-hand contact or indirectly via food or inanimate objects like banknotes and doorknobs or other objects that come into contact with multiple human hands. Banknotes may be contaminated during storage and exchange, with lower-denomination banknotes receiving the most handling and therefore more contamination (Abrams; Waterman, 1972). In general, a greater number of bacteria have been reported on banknotes than on coins. Banknotes are an excellent transport medium for different types of microorganisms because they are commonly passed among individuals.Thus, handling money may be a route for transmission of infections (Xu et al. , 2005). We analyzed a sample of 70 20peso bills to isolate and identify bacteria or yeast that may be present on the surface of these banknotes. A recent study that included 1,280 banknotes from 10 countries, including Mexico, reported that pathogens could only be isolated after enrichment and their mere presence did not appear to be alarming (Vriesekoop et al. , 2010). The authors discussed that the presence of bacteria on banknotes is influenced by the material used for the banknotes (polymer based vs. otton based) and the age of the banknotes. They stated that the average number of bacteria encountered on the polymer banknotes was approximately 25% of that found on cotton-based banknotes (Vriesekoop et al. , 2010). That study showed a lower percentage of contamination in Mexican banknotes in comparison to banknotes from China, the U. S. , the UK, and the Netherlands, among others. We analyzed only polymer-based banknotes in good condition, but the presence of contamination was detected in most banknotes analyzed without any enrichment procedure.In that study, the only contaminations detected in Mexican banknotes were E. coli, S. aureus, and a low percentage of Bacillus cereus, which were interpreted as an indicator of poor hygiene, background microorganism, and the ab ility of spore-forming bacteria to persist on banknotes, respectively. In our study, we detected S. aureus and Bacillus spp. but we did not detect E. coli. It is important to point out that the 10-country study included currencies obtained only from food outlets and for this reason the results from that study and ours cannot strictly be compared. Source: Microbial Contamination in 20-Peso Banknotes in Monterrey, Mexico Rocha-Gamez, Judith; Tejeda-Villarreal, Paula Nelly, QCB; Macias-Cardenas, Patricia; Canizales-Oviedo, Jorge; Garza-Gonzalez, Elvira; et al. Journal of Environmental Health 75. 2 (Sep 2012): 20-3. ) In another study, entitled â€Å"Potential for Parasite and Bacterial Transmission by Paper Currency in Nigeria†, Bacteria that were isolated were Streptococcus species (21. 6 percent), Staphylococcus species (12. 8 percent), Escherichia coli (13. 2 percent), and Bacillus species (5. 6 percent).Among dirty/mutilated currency notes, parasite contamination and bacteri al contamination were both significantly (p ; . 05) more pervasive (30. 6 percent and 73. 8 percent, respectively) than they were among clean and mint currency notes. Lower-denomination notes were more likely to be contaminated than were higher-denomination notes, although the difference was not statistically significant (p ; . 05). Personal hygiene to reduce risk of infection is recommended. Microbial contaminants may be transmitted either directly, through hand-to-hand contact, or indirectly, via food or other inanimate objects.These routes of transmission are of great importance in the health of many populations in developing countries, where the frequency of infection is a general indication of local hygiene and environmental sanitation levels. (Cooper, 1991). Paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide. It is used for every type of commerce, from buying milk at a local store to trafficking in sex and drugs. All this trade is hard on currency , with lower-denomination notes receiving the most handling because they are exchanged many times (Gadsby, 1998).Bacteriological analysis indicated that 133 (53. 2 percent, [95 percent CI: 47. 02-57. 39]) of the second batch of 250 notes were contaminated with bacteria: 37 (52. 9 percent) of the 70 clean notes and 96 (73. 8 percent) of the 130 dirty/mutilated notes. Neither parasite ova nor bacteria were found on the mint notes. Contamination was related to denomination of currency. Contamination with bacteria was most prevalent among the N5 notes (62. 2 percent) and least prevalent among the N500 notes (32. 0 percent). Contamination was also related to the physical condition of the currency.The dirty/mutilated notes also had the highest prevalence of bacterial contamination (73. 8 percent). Among the clean notes, 52. 9 percent were contaminated with bacteria. Chi-square analysis indicated a statistically significant association between bacterial contamination and currency condition (? ^sup 2^ = 79. 030, df = 2, p;. 05). In the study reported here, a random approach was adopted for currency sampling; whatever money was provided was collected. The implication is that the majority of the people are exposed to dirty notes.In Nigeria, poor-currency-handling culture is widespread, and there is indiscriminate abuse of currency notes. A great majority of the populace does not carry money in wallets, and squeezing of currency notes is a common occurrence. Women, especially among the unenlightened, often place money underneath their brassieres, while men place theirs in their socks. These activities not only enhance currency contamination but may also increase the risk of infection from contaminated notes. The situation is further compounded by the inability of the Nigerian government to consistently withdraw old, worn-out, and mutilated notes from circulation.The presence of damaged currency notes and the failure to consistently withdraw them from circulation are comm on phenomena in many parts of Africa and Asia (Gadsby, 1998; Podhajny, 2004). The persistence of damaged or terribly mutilated notes in active circulation (some so damaged that they can no longer be stuck together) could elevate their contributory role in transmission of some pathogens, thereby constituting potential public health hazard. ( Source: Uneke, C. and Ogbu, O. Potential for parasite and bacteria transmission by paper currency in Nigeria. J Environ Health, 69 (2007) 54–60. (1)) CHAPTER 3RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to determine the prevalence of E. coli contamination on Philippine Peso bill on Public Utility jeepney (PUJ), specifically on: twenty (20), fifty (50), one hundred (100) pesos. Subjects of the study The subject of the study is the fifteen (15) Public Utility Jeepney drivers routing Jaro-CPU and City Proper bound. On each driver, three (3) Philippine Peso bill samples with amounts: 20, 50 and 100 are to b e collected. Data Gathering 45 peso bills are to be used as sample and will be collected on the month of March 2013 at around 10:00 – 11:00 in the morning.The samples will be taken randomly from 15 Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ) of Jaro – Cpu Route. In each jeepney, three(3) different values: 20, 50, and 100 Php are to be taken and tested, so the total number of samples is 45. The samples collected will be placed in a sealable plastic container, so as to preserve the contaminants on the peso bill. The paper bill will be brought immediately to Central Philippine University, particularly at the Medical Laboratory Science Department Research Lab for confirmatory testing of E. coli. Preparation of Laboratory Materials Needed The following are needed to conduct our study: . ) Sterile cotton swab – will be used in obtaining the possible contaminant on the surface of the paper bill. b. )Eosin Methylene Blue Agar – will be used in the confirmatory test for the pres ence of E. coli The following are the apparatus needed for our study: a. )Petri Dish b. )Alcohol Lamp c. )Oven All of the enumerated materials above will be borrowed from the stockroom of Medical Laboratory Science Department. A letter of permission was given to the stockroom coordinator for authorized use of the materials stated above. Eosin Methylene Blue Agar (EMB) Procedure: 1.Using a sterile cotton swab, swab on the surface of the peso bill then streak it onto an EMB agar. 2. Incubate plates at 35oC for twenty-four(24) hours. 3. After 24 hours, observe the plate as follows: The colonies developing on EMB agar plates may be divides as: Typical – nucleated with or without metallic sheen Atypical – opaque, pink mucoid, non-nucleated Negative – no growth or clear watery, or clear colonies Interpretation of Data Philippine peso paper bill that will give a negative reaction on the EMB agar plate is considered not contaminated with E. coli and is safe for everyday domestic use.There will be no growth or clear watery or clear colonies. On the other hand, water sample that yielded a positive result in E. coli analysis is considered to be contaminated with E. coli bacteria and is not safe. There would be a typical nucleated with or without metallic sheen. Central Philippine University Jaro, Iloilo City College of Arts and Sciences __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ Sir/Madam, We, the 3rd yearBachelor in Medical Laboratory Science students of Central Philippine University who are currently enrolled in the subject Research is conducting a study entitled Prevalence of E. oli in Philippine Peso Bill. This is a requirement for the completion of the subject in Research 1. In line withthis, we are respectfully requesting you to be one of the respondents of our study by exchanging such peso bills: 20, 50 and 100 respectively that has been collected as commuter’s fare. We need this data for the completion of this study. Your positive response to this request is highly appreciated. Thank you and God bless. Respectfully yours, JUSTINE GRACE JIMENEA ISAAC JAMES LEDESMA MAJA HANNAH LOU LOJA ROBERTO MANALO Jr. JIRAH PEDROSA Researchers Noted by: DR. MA. CORAZON PORRAS Research Adviser BibliographyAbel, Andrew;  Bernanke, Ben  (2005). â€Å"7†. Macroeconomics(5th ed. ). Pearson. pp. 266–269. ISBN  0-201-32789-9. Ahmed, S. U. , S. Parveen, T. Nasreen and B. Feroza, 2010. Evaluation of The Microbial Contamination of Bangladesh Paer Currency Notes (Taka) in Circulation. Advances in Biological Res. , 4 (5):266-271. Aidoo, Kofi (2011). Microbiology Today Answers. ask. com/Health/Diseases/how_does_e_coli_grow, 2010 Bernstein, Peter,  A Primer on Money and Banking, and Gold, Wiley, 2008 edition, pp29-39 Bhat, B. , S. Bhat, K. Asawa and A. Agarwal, 2010. An assessment of oral health risk associated with handling of currency notes. Int. J.Dntal Clinics, 2(3): 14-16. Bioweb. uw lax. edu/bio203/s2008/moder_just/habitat. htm, 2008 Boyle, David  (2006). The Little Money Book. 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